# UD patent

from Kais:

You are welcome to discuss, if you feel the need!
Recall that first comment needs moderation. Other than that, please be constructive, as usual.
Thanks Kais!

# Another discussion about math, artificial chemistry and computation

I have to record this ongoing discussion from G+, it’s too interesting.  Shall do it from  my subjective viewpoint, be free to comment on this, either here or in the original place.

(Did the almost the same, i.e. saved here some of my comments from an older discussion, in the post   Model of computation vs programming language in molecular computing. That recording was significant, for me at least, because I made those comments by thinking at the work on the GLC actors article, which was then in preparation.)

Further I shall only lightly edit the content of the discussion (for example by adding links).

It started from this post:

“I will argue that it is a category mistake to regard mathematics as “physically real”.”  Very interesting post by Louis Kauffman: Mathematics and the Real.
Discussed about it here: Mathematics, things, objects and brains.
Greg Egan‘s “Permutation City” argues that a mathematical process itself is identical in each and any instance that runs it. If we presume we can model consciousness mathematically it then means: Two simulated minds are identical in experience, development, everything when run with the same parameters on any machine (anwhere in spacetime).

Also, it shouldn’t matter how a state came to be, the instantaneous experience for the simulated mind is independent of it’s history (of course the mind’s memory ought to be identical, too).He then levitates further and proposes that it’s not relevant wether the simulation is run at all because we may find all states of such a mind’s being represented scattered in our universe…If i remember correctly, Egan later contemplated to be embarassed about this bold ontological proposal. You should be able to find him reasoning about the dust hypothesis on the accompanying material on his website.Update: I just saw that wikipedia’s take on the book has the connection to Max Tegmark in the first paragraph:
> […] cited in a 2003 Scientific American article on multiverses by Max Tegmark.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation_City

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+Refurio Anachro  thanks for the reference to Permutation city and to the dust hypothesis, will read and comment later. For the moment I have to state my working hypothesis: in order to understand basic workings of the brain (math processing included), one should pass any concept it is using through the filter
• local not global
• distributed not sequential
• no external controller
• no use of evaluation.

From this hypothesis, I believe that notions like “state”, “information”, “signal”, “bit”, are concepts which don’t pass this filter, which is why they are part of an ideology which impedes the understanding of many wonderful things which are discovered lately, somehow against this ideology. Again, Nature is a bitch, not a bit 🙂

That is why, instead of boasting against this ideology and jumping to consciousness (which I think is something which will wait for understanding sometimes very far in the future), I prefer to offer first an alternative (that’s GLC, chemlambda) which shows that it is indeed possible to do anything which can be done with these ways of thinking coming from the age of the invention of the telephone. And then more.

After, I prefer to wonder not about consciousness and it’s simulation, but instead about vision and other much more fundamental processes related to awareness. These are taken for granted, usually, and they have the bad habit of contradicting any “bit”-based explanation given up to date.

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the past lives in a conceptual domain
would one argue then that the past
is not real
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+Peter Waaben  that’s easy to reply, by way of analogy with The short history of the  rhino thing .
Is the past real? Is the rhinoceros horn on the back real? Durer put a horn on the rhino’s back because of past (ancient) descriptions of rhinos as elephant killers. The modus operandi of that horn was the rhino, as massive as the elephant, but much shorter, would go under the elephant’s belly and rip it open with the dedicated horn.  For centuries, in the minds of people, rhinos really have a horn on the back. (This has real implications, alike, for example, with the idea that if you stay in the cold then you will catch a cold.) Moreover, and even more real, there are now real rhinos with a horn on the back, like for example Dali’s rhino.
I think we can safely say that the past is a thing, and any of this thing reifications are very real.
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+Peter Waaben, that seems what the dust hypothesis suggests.
+Marius Buliga, i’m still digesting, could you rephrase “- no use of evaluation” for me? But yes, practical is good!
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[My comment added here: see the posts

]

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+Refurio Anachro  concretely, in the model of computation based on lambda calculus you have to add an evaluation strategy to make it work (for example, lazy, eager, etc).  The other model of computation, the Turing machine is just a machine, in the sense that you have to build a whole architecture around to use it. For the TM you use states, for example, and the things work by knowing the state (and what’s under the reading head).  Even in pure functional programming, besides their need for an evaluation strategy, they live with this cognitive dissonance: on one side they they rightfully say that they avoid the use of states of the imperative programming, and on the other side they base their computation on evaluation of functions! That’s funny, especially if you think about the dual feeling which hides behind “pure functional programming has no side effects” (how elegant, but how we get real effects from this?).
In distinction from that. in distributed GLC there is no evaluation needed for computation. There are several causes of this. First is that there are no values in this computation. Second is that everything is local and distributed. Third is that you don’t have eta reduction (thus no functions!). Otherwise, it resembles with pure functional programming if you  see the core-mask construction as the equivalent of the input-output monad (only that you don’t have to bend backwards to keep both functions and no side effects in the model).
[My comment added here: see behaviour 5 of a GLC actor explained in this post.
]
Among the effects is that it goes outside the lambda calculus (the condition to be a lambda graph is global), which simplifies a lot of things, like for example the elimination of currying and uncurrying.  Another effect is that is also very much like automaton kind of computation, only that it is not relying on a predefined grid, nor on an extra, heavy handbook of how to use it as a computer.
On a more philosophical side, it shows that it is possible to do what the lambda calculus and the TM can do, but it also can do things without needing signals and bits and states as primitives. Coming back a bit to the comparison with pure functional programming, it solves the mentioned cognitive dissonance by saying that it takes into account the change of shape (pattern? like in Kauffman’s post) of the term during reduction (program execution), even if the evaluation of it is an invariant during the computation (no side effects of functional programming). Moreover, it does this by not working with functions.
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+Marius Buliga “there are no values in this computation” Not to disagree, but is there a distinction between GLC graphs that is represented to a collection of possible values? For example, topological objects can differ in their chromatic, Betti, genus, etc. numbers. These are not values like those we see in the states, signals and bits of a TM, but are a type of value nonetheless.
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+Stephen Paul King  yes, of course, you can stick values to them, but  the fact is that you can do without, you don’t need them for the sake of computation. The comparison you make with the invariants of topological objects is good! +Louis Kauffman  made this analogy between the normal form of a lambda term and such kinds of “values”.
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+Refurio Anachro  thanks again for the Permutation city reference. Yes, it is clearly related to the budding Artifficial Connectomes idea of GLC and chemlambda!
It is also related with interests into Unlimited Detail 🙂 , great!
[My comment added here: see the following quote from the Permutation city wiki page

The Autoverse is an artificial life simulator based on a cellular automaton complex enough to represent the substratum of an artificial chemistry. It is deterministic, internally consistent and vaguely resembles real chemistry. Tiny environments, simulated in the Autoverse and filled with populations of a simple, designed lifeform, Autobacterium lamberti, are maintained by a community of enthusiasts obsessed with getting A. lamberti to evolve, something the Autoverse chemistry seems to make extremely difficult.

Related explorations go on in virtual realities (VR) which make extensive use of patchwork heuristics to crudely simulate immersive and convincing physical environments, albeit at a maximum speed of seventeen times slower than “real” time, limited by the optical crystal computing technology used at the time of the story. Larger VR environments, covering a greater internal volume in greater detail, are cost-prohibitive even though VR worlds are computed selectively for inhabitants, reducing redundancy and extraneous objects and places to the minimum details required to provide a convincing experience to those inhabitants; for example, a mirror not being looked at would be reduced to a reflection value, with details being “filled in” as necessary if its owner were to turn their model-of-a-head towards it.

]

But I keep my claim that that’s enough to understand for 100 years. Consciousness is far away. Recall that first electricity appeared as  kind of life fluid (Volta to Frankenstein monster), but actually it has been used with tremendous success for other things.
I believe the same about artificial chemistry, computation, on one side, and consciousness on the other. (But ready to change this opinion if faced with enough evidence.)

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# Is there an uncanny valley between reality and computing?

A very deep one, maybe.

I was looking for news about UD and euclideon. I found this pair of videos [source], the first by BetterReality and the second by The Farm 51 .

Now, suppose that we scanned the whole world (or a part of it) and we put the data in the cloud. Do we have a mirror of reality now on the cloud? No! Why not, the data, according to mainstream CS ideology, is the same: coordinates and tags (color, texture, etc) in the cloud, the same in reality.

Think about the IoT, we do have the objects, lots of them, in potentially unlimited detail. But there is still this uncanny valley between reality and computation.

We can’t use the data, because:

• there is too much data (for our sequential machines? for our dice and slice ideology,  a manifestation of the cartesian disease ? )
• there is not enough time (because we ask the impossible: to do, on one very limited PC, the work  done by huge parts of reality? or because the data is useful only together with the methodology (based on  absolute, God’s eye view of reality, based on passive space as a receptacle), and the methodology is what stops us?)

I think that we can use the data (after reformatting it) and we can pass the uncanny valley between reality and computing. A way to do this supposes that:

• we get rid of the absolute, passive space and time, get rid of global views (not because these don’t exist, but because this is a hypothesis we don’t need!)
• we go beyond Turing Machine and Von Neumann architecture, and we seriously include P2P asynchronous, local, decentralized way of thinking into the model of computation (like CSP, or Actor Model or why not Distributed GLC?)

This is fully compatible with  the response given by Neil Gershenfeld to the question

# 2014 : WHAT SCIENTIFIC IDEA IS READY FOR RETIREMENT?

(Thank you Stephen P. King for the G+ post which made me aware of that!)

# What’s going on in this UD algorithm?

In the post My idea about UD, completely unrelated to the content of it, b@b made a comment where he gives a link to a post of “BruceRDell” reproduced here:

Okay, I see you understand basic principles. Now let’s move to the more complex things. I can’t share exact UD algorithm (you must understand me, I’ve spent years mastering it) but I can express in a code what I have already said in the interviews. The thing I want to say is: you must use sorting and eliminate raycasting.
Sorting algorithm I introduce here is very VERY simple. You can optimize it a lot using octrees and more elegant heuristics than that. But keep it simple.
You’ve mentioned this http://rghost.net/48541594 dataset, I had some problems downloading it, but I did it that and can say it is good for testing, you may use it with my program.

Here is the code I am talking about. If you’re smart enough, you’ll get benefit from it.

I’m probably way too late for this. But anyway I made this quick edit of the program:
http://pastebin.com/HiDW5tMB     [updated version:http://pastebin.com/kW1t5s1c  ]

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Question: why does it work?

UPDATE:  It’s not clear if it really works, it’s unknown the quantitative improvement given by the random permutation trick. If you care, the BruceRDell  thing is a prank.

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I would like to understand the following:

1. what is the role of the random permutation?
2. why does the main loop work?

So, let’s have a polite and informative discussion in the comments, if you agree. We all write in some variant of broken english, therefore I don’t see why anybody can’t participate.

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Not interested in: is the real Bruce Dell? Is the real UD algorithm? Only interested to understand the guts of it.

I finish with the video from b@b’s comment:

Here is what I believe that  UD is doing. This can be surely multiply optimized, but the basics is: put the z buffer in the 3d space.

I. Preparing the database.

1. Imagine a 3D cubic lattice which is as big as your 3D scenery bounding box.  Take coordinates aligned with the lattice. Put the camera at coordinates (0,0,0) and surround it with a cube C. The faces of the cube C will serve as the cubemap we want to construct. Each face is covered by pixels of a given resolution. We have already the following parameters to play with, given in the units of the coordinate system chosen: the step of the lattice, the dimension of the cube C, the resolution of a face of C.

2. render, by any means you like, the lattice, as seen from the (0,0,0) pov, on the 6 “screens” -faces of C.  We have 6 view frustra, the discussion will be the same for each of them. In order to render them you need to put small balls, or squares facing the relevant face of the cubemap, or whatever, at the lattice nodes, so we have another parameter here, the diameter of the ball or square.  As a result of the rendering you now know the following things:

• for any lattice atom you know which pixel from which face it corresponds. You may do better for lattice atoms which are inside the cube C, namely “ignore” them, say you attribute to them a IGNORE label, otherwise you attribute to each lattice atom the 2D coordinates of the pixel from the cubemap and a information which says which face of the cubemap the pixel is,
• you have information about the scale, which you attach to the lattice atoms, like this: if two neighbouring lattice atoms project on the same pixel then attach IGNORE to both. If the ball/square/whatever of a lattice atom projects on more than one pixel then attach to it  a number SCALE approximately proportional with the square ROOT (thanks ine) of the number of pixels it projects (or the dimension of the bounding box of the pixels)

Of course, you don’t want to take a huge lattice, with very small balls. That’s all in the parameters choice.

3.  Take now your database of 3D points, i.e. the real one, which you want to render eventually, UD style. I shall ignore, for the sake of the argument, how is the database implemented: as an octree or otherwise, or even if the database is made by 3D points or by some more complex objects, like polygons.  Put this database in the coordinates chosen first, such that, for example, if you are working with octrees, the cells of the lattice correspond with some level of the octree.  Attach to each node of the lattice the supplementary information: the points from the database which are within the ball surrounding the atom, or else the label VOID. Alternatively, think that any point from the database is inside some cell lattice and “project” it on each corner of the the cell lattice (i.e. attach to each lattice atom a list of points from the database which are in the neighbourhood of the lattice atom, the nil list corresponds to VOID)

4.  Let’s see what we have, supposing for example that we use octrees. We add the 3D lattice to the 3D database of points (by using lists of points as explained at 3.) and for any lattice atom we attach also the information as explained at point 2.

How to compress this efficiently? There is a new parameter here, namely the level of the octree and also how is the color, for example, information stored in the octree. Of course, this is a matter of recursion, namely at points 1-3 we may take finer and finer resolutions and lattice steps, and so on, starting from a very gross lattice and resolution, etc, then trying to figure a correct recursion procedure. That’s work to be done, is not trivial but it is somehow straightforward once you figure it.

II. The pipeline and rendering.

The problem is that we want to be able to get very very fast, from the database constructed at (I), only the points which are needed for realtime rendering, when the camera is at coordinates (x,y,z).

This problem splits into two different ones:

• at the start of the realtime UD rendering, we want to be able to cull something close to the minimum number of 3D points, when camera is at (0,0,0). According to the information given by Euclideon, a good algorithm should   able to do this in about 1s.
• then, we need a procedure to take what we need from the database when we change the pov from (x,y,z) to (x+1,y, z) (or alike). This should be much more faster, allowing for realtime rendering.

As a preparation, let’s remark that:

1. if the camera is a (0,0,0), then we already know where each lattice point projects, is written in the database. So we just need to start from a pixel, at a given resolution (reccursion again), and to choose from the database only the lattice atoms which are CLOSE, in the decreasing order of SCALE, and from those the real 3D points which are neighbours (of course we have to use the octree structure). We get for each pixel a number of points of the order of log(dimension of the world).
2. if the camera is at (x,y,z) we also know where each point from the 3D database projects, because we read it from the data attached to the lattice atom which, translated by (x,y,z), is the neighbour of the point. We get also the SCALE parameter from this.

1. We use remark 1 to solve the first problem, namely what comes through the pipeline from the huge 3D database to the pre-rendering buffer B, when we start with the camera at (0,0,0). The buffer contains about (number of pixels) X log(dimension of the world)  3D points, along with pixels coordinates where they project and with SCALE.  This is fed directly to the rendering procedure, which you can choose freely, but it is almost trivial.

2. What happens when we move the camera? We update the pre-rendering buffer B, only by updating the pixel and scale information for the 3D points in the buffer D, getting only by a translation (addition) the relevant data from the huge database, in case here are two things which might happen: there is a point which exits the buffer, or there is a hole in the image.

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Is this making any sense? Please let me know, because I was asked repeatedly what do I really believe.

# The weekend round table on UD

The comments from   Is 3D Cube a predecessor of UD?   were very useful as concerns the  idea of making open source UD like programs. There are already two projects, created by Bauke and Jim respectively, see the page   UD projects here for the relevant links.

We cannot possibly know if any of  these two proposals is like Bruce Dell’s UD, but it does not matter much because Bauke and Jim programs may well turn out to be as good as Dell’s, or why not even better. (However,  I still want to know how exactly the database of Saj’s 3D Cube is done, because of the claims he made many years ago, which are almost identical with the ones made by Dell, see the link from the beginning of this post.)

Enough chit-chat, the reason for this post   is that I suppose new discussions will follow, for example about Bauke’s still pending detailed explanations about his program. Also, any day now Jim might amaze us.

So, please start commenting here instead, if you feel the need to ask or answer questions about the two projects. Or, hey, you are welcome to announce yours!

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UPDATE:   I add here Bauke’s explanations from this comment :

My algorithm consists of three steps:
1. Preparing the quadtree. (This process is very similar to frustum culling, I’m basically culling all the leaf nodes of the quadtree that are not in the frustum.) This step can be omitted at the cost of higher CPU usage.
2. Computing the cubemap. (Or actually only the visible part, if you did step 1.) It uses the quadtree to do occlusion culling. The quadtree is basically an improved z-buffer, though since the octree is descended in front to back order, it is sufficient to only store ‘rendered’ or ‘not rendered’. It furthermore allows to do constant time depth checks for larger regions.

3. Rendering the cubemap. This is just the common cubemap rendering method. I do nothing new here.

My description only explains step 2, as this is the core of my algorithm. Step 1 is an optimization and step 3 is so common that I expect the reader to already know how this step works.

Step 2 does not use the display frustum at all. It does do the perspective. But does so by computing the nearest octree leaf (for the sake of simplicity I’m ignoring the LOD/mipmap/anti-aliassing here) in the intersection of a cone and the octree model. This is shown in the following 2D images:

I don’t know what you mean with ‘scaling of each pixel’, but I believe that scaling of pixels only happens in step 3. In step 1 and 2 I completely ignore that this happens.

I hope this answers your questions. If not, please tell which of the 3 steps you do not understand.

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UPDATE: You may like techniques used here  [source]

# Is 3D Cube a predecessor of UD?

Pablo Hugo Reda has found this old site dedicated to the 3D Cube Project (that’s an even older link sent by appc23, with more access to info), as well as a discussion on the net which looks strangely alike the actual exchanges around UD.  There are an exe and a database, as well. I reproduce further some parts, taken from the two links provided by Pablo  (only boldfaces by me):

3DCube is as far as I know, a completely different way to store and display complex 3D images. The building atoms of the 3D data structure are lines of pixels, not polygons, bitmaps, or voxels. As explained above, the main objective of the project was to create a system that would allow very complex, elaborate models, with hundreds of structures, which could take up to an entire CD-ROM but require only a small portion of the model to reside in RAM. A large portion of the challenge was coming up with data organization that would allow keeping the model on CD ROM but be capable of displaying the perspective of the entire model instantly at any time. This is possible since the high detail of the model is only needed for elements close to the view point origin. Almost no processing is needed to load the model or its parts from the disk (please notice how quickly the demo initializes). Therefore, the disk activity processing load related to tracking the view point movement is very small – much lower than required for playing a digital video for example.

The algorithm required to display the image at any angle from the view point is quite simple. No floating point calculations, trigonometric functions, or even division instructions are needed, and use of multiplication instructions is very limited. A simple custom hardware utilizing my method could render the image with the same ease as a video card hardware displays the bitmap stored in its video memory. […]

My rendering algorithm is essentially a DSP-type algorithm, working with 64-bit data, which generates the image scan-line by scan-line with operations being mostly adding of 64-bit data. If the 80×86 just had a few more registers, the entire rendering algorithm would use no temporary RAM data (just the CPU registers) and would render the entire image by reading the model and outputting the resulting scan-lines. The biggest current problem in implementing the algorithm now is the necessity to swap the temporary data in and out of the registers to memory.

3D Cube project was originated with the intention of making it a new generation 3D game engine, allowing unprecedented detail and complexity of “virtual worlds” created. After seeing the performance and model sophistication possible with this method, I realized that the possible applications of the method are far beyond just video games. […]

In addition to the above, 3D Cube could allow things like taking pictures of some scene from different directions, building a model out of it. 3D Cube storage method

It’s not a mistake, the text ends like this.

From the discussion, a comment by the 3D Cube creator, S.A. Janczewski:

Well, let us try to clarify the term voxel.
– If a “voxel” can have different color/attribute from each of 6  directions, is it still a voxel?
– If it is not cubical — can have sloped surfaces, is it still a  voxel?
– If the six colors of a “voxel” are not at all stored together as a unit, is it still a voxel?
If the data organization of a 3D engine does not have any kind of  data structure that would store data through clear (x,y,z) – coordinate
granularity, is it still a voxel engine?

If you answer yes to all the above questions than my engine is a voxel engine but so is any polygon-based engine.

I hope that the above will make it clear that the reasons I did not use  the term voxel anywhere were following:
– My method has absolutely nothing in common with commonly known voxel engines or storage techniques
– Since the term voxel is not clearly defined, using it would not  contribute anything(rather than confusion) to the descriptions
– Some “voxel engine” techniques are patented — using the term could result in getting myself (without a reason) accused of “patent infringement.”

Please forgive me if you somehow interpreted my previous message as   criticism of your input. I did however get accused quite a few time of ignorance (not by you) for not using the term voxel in my description  and felt it was appropriate to respond to it.

What do you think?

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UPDATE: Is maybe relevant for the discussion to state that the goal is to produce an open source variant of an UD like algorithm. As you can see, supposing of course that 3D Cube was indeed a precursor of UD, the problems are the same, i.e. a probably very good idea, with a lot of potential for cash and also a game changer for an industry. Communicating it means loosing an advantage, but not communicating it leads to disbelief. There is a third way, open source. Right, no direct money from it, but everybody benefits and new possibilities open. So, in case you are working on that, don’t be shy or secretive, that’s not the good idea. Share.

# UD, A-buffer, surfels

That’s a collection of facts which might be interesting for UD seekers. I’ll just dump it and wait for your reaction.

(from this wiki page) “Loren Carpenter is co-founder and chief scientist of Pixar Animation Studios. He is the co-inventor of the Reyes rendering algorithm. … In 1980 he gave a presentation at the SIGGRAPH conference, in which he showed “Vol Libre”, a 2 minute computer generated movie. This showcased his software for generating and rendering fractally generated landscapes, and was met with a standing ovation, and (as Carpenter had hoped) he was immediately invited to work at Lucasfilm‘s Computer Division (which would be come Pixar).[2] There Carpenter worked on the “genesis effect” scene of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, which featured an entire fractally-landscaped planet.[2]

… Carpenter invented the A-buffer hidden surface determination algorithm.”

Here is a link to the paper The A-buffer, an Antialiased Hidden Surface Method (1984), recommended reading.

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(from this wiki page) “Hidden surface determination is a process by which surfaces which should not be visible to the user (for example, because they lie behind opaque objects such as walls) are prevented from being rendered. Despite advances in hardware capability there is still a need for advanced rendering algorithms. The responsibility of a rendering engine is to allow for large world spaces and as the world’s size approaches infinity the engine should not slow down but remain at constant speed. Optimising this process relies on being able to ensure the diversion of as few resources as possible towards the rendering of surfaces that will not end up being rendered to the user.

There are many techniques for hidden surface determination. They are fundamentally an exercise in sorting, and usually vary in the order in which the sort is performed and how the problem is subdivided. Sorting large quantities of graphics primitives is usually done by divide and conquer.”

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Surfels: Surface Elements as Rendering Primitives
H. Pfister, M. Zwicker, J. van Baar, M. Gross, SIGGRAPH 2000

A Survey and Classification of Real Time Rendering Methods
M. Zwicker, M. Gross, H. Pfister
Technical Report No. 332, Computer Science Department, ETH Zürich, 1999.

From the first mentioned article: “In this paper we propose a new method of rendering objects with rich shapes and textures at interactive frame rates. Our rendering architecture is based on simple surface elements (surfels) as rendering primitives. Surfels are point samples of a graphics model. In a preprocessing step, we sample the surfaces of complex geometric models along three orthographic views. At the same time, we perform computation-intensive calculations such as texture, bump, or displacement mapping. By moving rasterization and texturing from the core rendering pipeline to the preprocessing step, we dramatically reduce the rendering cost.”

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Does it look a bit familiar?

# Guestpost: a proposal of a UD like algorithm by Bauke Conijn

The following is the first guest post, answering the invitation made in  Call for analysis of the new UD video .  The author is Bauke Conijn (aka bcmpinc). Reposted on his blog here.

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I designed an algorithm that, given an octree and a location within that octree can compute the cubemap at that location. The algorithm kind of raytraces each face of the cubemap, but does this in such a way that  multiple rays are traced simultaneously (aka. mass connected processing).

The faces of the cubemap are axis-aligned, which allows us to use linear interpolation rather than perspective correct interpolation (which includes 2 multiplications and a division). Because of this linear
interpolation, the algorithm only needs integer additions, subtractions,  and multiplications by a power of two (aka. bitshifts).

I’ve also written a partial implementation of the algorithm, available at Git-hub, which renders the positive z plane of the cubemap. It currently does so at 2 fps, which, considering I did not yet put effort in optimization and screen space occlusion is not yet implemented, seems  promising. The data is still fully loaded into memory at startup. As background I render a fixed cubemap.

Due to space considerations, not all models have been uploaded to  git-hub, but a small low-resolution model is available, such that after compiling the code, you can at least see something. The code is rather  messy as it is still in an experimental state.

Images:
http://imageshack.us/a/img839/7291/voxel2.png (test-scene)
http://imageshack.us/a/img841/1796/voxel3.png (test-scene)
http://imageshack.us/a/img708/221/voxel4.png (part of Mouna Loa)
http://imageshack.us/a/img24/8798/voxel5.png (part of Mouna Loa)
http://imageshack.us/a/img69/2483/voxel6.png (low resolution)

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UPDATE: Here is a movie made by Bauke, with his program.

Moreover, here is a  draft article which explains it in detail.

# Call for analysis of the new UD video

Thanks to preda  and to appc23 for showing us the new UD video:

The previous post on this subject,  New discussion on UD (updated) , has lots of interesting comments. It has become difficult to make sense of the various proposals concerning the UD algorithm, therefore I made this new post which shall serve first as a place for new discussions, then it will be updated.

It is maybe the time to make sense a bit of the material existent (or linked to) on this blog. That is why I invite everybody who is willing to do this to make it’s own proposal, preferably with (either) programs or proofs or evidence (links). Especially, in a random order, this invitation is addressed to:

• Dave H
• preda
• 17genr
• JX
• appc23
• bcmpinc
• Shea
• Tony

but anybody which has something coherent to communicate is welcome to make a proposal which will blow our minds.

Make your respective proposals as detailed as you wish, take your time to make them convincing and then, if you agree, of course, we shall make feature posts here with each of them, in order to become easier to follow the different threads.

Let me finish, for the moment, by stating which points are the most important in my opinion, until now (I stress, in my opinion, feel free to contradict me):

• UD works like a sorting algorithm,
• cubemaps are used, but their main utility is to eliminate rotations wrt the POV from the problem,
• UD is not a rendering algorithm (or, at least, the most interesting part of UD is not one), it is an algorithm for fast searching the data needed to put a colour on each pixel,
• UD needs  to turn a cloud of points into a database, only once, operation which takes considerable more time than the searching algorithm part,
• does not need antialiasing
• does not raycasting for each pixel
• it is a mathematical breakthrough, though not a CS  or math technical one (i.e. does not need the latest edge CS or math research in order to make sense  of it, but it’s a beautiful idea).

Almost finished, but I have to explain a bit my attitude about UD.  I am thorn between my curiosity about this, explained in other posts (for example by it’s partial overlap with the goals of Digital Materialization), and the fact that I don’t want this blog to be absorbed into this subject only. I have my ideas concerning a possible UD algorithm, especially from a math viewpoint, but unless I produce a program, I can’t know if I’m right or wrong (and I am not willing to try yet, because I am sympathetic with the underdog Dell and also because it would take me at least several months to get off the rust from my programming brain and I am not yet willing to spent real research time on this). Suppose I’m wrong, therefore, and let’s try to find it in a collaborative, open way. If we succeed then I would be very happy, in particular because it would get out of my mind.

# New discussion on UD (updated)

This post is for a new discussion on UD, because the older ones “Discussion about how an UD algorithm might work” and “Unlimited detail challenge: the most easy formulation” have lots of comments.

____________

UPDATE: It looks like Oliver Kreylos    (go and read his blog as well)   extremely interesting work on LiDAR Visualization is very close to Bruce Dell’s  Geoverse. Thanks to Dave H. (see comments further) for letting me know about this.  It is more and more puzzling why UD  was welcomed by so much rejection and so many hate messages when, it turns out, slowly but surely, that’s one of the future hot topics.

____________

Please post here any new comment and I shall update this post with relevant information. We are close to a solution (maybe different than the original), thanks to several contributors, this project begins to look like a real collaborative one.

Note: please don’t get worried if your comment does not appear immediately, this might be due to the fact that it contains links (which is good!) or other quirks of the wordpress filtering of comments, which makes that sometimes I have to approve comments by people who already have previous approved comments. (Also, mind that the first comment you make have to be approved, the following ones are free of approval, unless the previous remarks apply.)

Let’s talk!

# Applications of UD (part II)

I am continuing the post Applications of UD by two comments, one concerning Google, the other Kinect.

Google: There are many discussions (on G+ in particular) around A second spring of cleaning at Google, mainly about their decision concerning Google Reader. But have you notice they are closing Google Building Maker? The reason is this:

Compare with Aerometrex, which uses UD:

So, are we going to see application 2 from the last post (Google Earth with UD) really soon?

Kinect: (I moved the update from the previous post here and slightly modified) Take a look at the video from  Kinect + Brain Scan = Augmented Reality for Neurosurgeons

They propose the following strategy:

• first use the data collected by the scanner in order to transform the scan of the patient’s brain into a 3D representation of the brain
• then use Kinect to lay this representation   over the real-world reconstruction of the patient’s head (done in real time by Kinect), so that the neurosurgeon has an augmented reality representation of the head which allows him/her to see inside the head and decide accordingly what to do.

This is very much compatible with the UD way (see application point 3.)  Suppose you have a  detailed brain  scan, much more detailed than Kinect alone can handle. Why not using  UD for the first step, then use Kinect for the second step. First put the scan data into the UD format, then use the UD machine to stream only the necessary data to the Kinect system. This way you have best of both worlds. The neurosurgeon could really see microscopic detail, if needed, correctly mapped inside patient’s brain. What about microscopic level reconstruction of the brain, which is the real level of detail needed by the neurosurgeon?

# Why computing with space?

Where is this fascination about UD from? Think about it a bit from a visual point of view (and mind that I am not writing about the exact, whatever it turns out to be, algorithm, but about principles). The information coming to the brain by the visual path is ridiculously small compared to the complexity of the world. Yes, when we look at something, the world takes care of the intricacies of ray-tracing for us. But what about the visual world reconstructed in our brains? There is no ray-tracing, there are no octrees, nor coordinates. Again, I repeat that despite all the very useful knowledge people have about robotic vision, this knowledge fails spectacularly to explain how we, humans, or simple creatures like flies, see.  This cartezian point of view, based on coordinatizing the exterior world and treating it like a given geographical space, is not, neuroscience tells us, how we manipulate space in the brain. Again , I repeat that algorithms, which are devices invented to solve problems, are not the right mean for trying to understand this problem, despite the amazing ideas that CS might give concerning the understanding of the world as some big system which we act upon and which it acts upon us. That is because our little grey cells (but let us not forget about those of the humble fly) don’t work by proposing themselves to solve problems. This is just another disease inflicted by the cartezian viewpoint. (I hope that at this stage you can still make the difference between mine and the average crackpot’s talking.)

If we look at the other side, the one of neuroscience, what we find? Sloppy data, compared to physics, due to the complexity of the systems studied, lack and even despise of mathematical knowledge, again compared with physics, due to the fact that these new sciences are in their infancy.

But somehow, as it has always been, somewhere there is an armchairian (word invented by Scott Aaronson), an ancient greek philosopher kind, which could get rid of the cartezian disease and see clearly  a system through the huge pile of data. My bet goes to a mathematician, but I may be biased.

# Applications of Unlimited Detail

The least interesting application of UD is in the games industry. Here are some other, more appealing, at least to me:

1. Google street view with UD. Pro: they (google) only need to change the format of their pictures database (and for example deduce some 3D data from different pictures of the same place made from different POVS, a lot of work, but they surely have the means). Con: there cannot be a too precise such tool, for obvious reasons, from security to privacy. Anyway, imagine you walk on the street (in street view) and you see instead of a sequence of photos a continuous 3D world.
2. Google earth with UD, you can pass continuously from a scale to another, like flying in a super space ship. Better yet, at really small detail you pass continuously from google earth to street view.
3. Not only geographical databases are interesting to see, but also very complex objects, like in the medical realm. I remember now that in the post on Digital Materialization and Euclideon, I noticed a similarity of goals between the DM project and the UD project. In the video of the interview provided on this blog by Dave H., at a certain point Bruce Dell mentions the difficulty of creating the 3D real objects (like a dragon or what ever head) and the easiness of looking at the virtual version created by scanning and then visualizing the scan with the UD machine. This is quite similar to one of the applications of DM, which consists in preserving cultural objects by using DM. Or by using UD, why not?
4. If we talk about games, then the world of a MMORPG could be put in UD form, probably.

What else?

UPDATE (20.02.2014): Here is something which would look well together with UD:

# Unlimited detail is a sorting algorithm

This is a continuation of the post “Unlimited detail challenge…“.  I am still waiting for a real solution to emerge from the various intriguing ideas. Here I want to comment a bit about the kind of the algorithm UD might be.

Bruce Dell compared it with a search algorithm, more specifically compared it with a search algorithm for words. As everybody knows, words form an ordered set, with the lexicographic order.

Moreover, Dell explains that the thing of UD is to pick from the huge database (which might be in a server, while the algorithm runs on a computer elsewhere, thus the algorithm has to be in a sense an online algorithm) only the 3D atoms which are visible on the screen, then render only those atoms.

Therefore, imagine that we have a huge database of 3D atoms with some characteristics (like color) and a separate database made of the coordinates of these atoms. The UD algorithm solves a “sorting” problem in the second database. (I put “sorting” because there is no total order fully compatible with the solution of the ray-casting problem, in the sense that it remains the same when the POV is changed.) Once this “sorting” part is done, the algorithm asks for the characteristics of only those points and proceed to the rendering part, which is almost trivial.

By looking at sorting algorithms, it is then to be expected a time estimate of the kind  $O((\log N)^{2})$ (for given, fixed number of screen pixels), where $N$ is the number of 3D atoms.

There are even sorting algorithms which are more efficient, like $O(\log N)$, but they are more efficient in practice for really huge numbers of atoms , like $2^{6000}$, as the AKS sorting.

So, the bottom line is this: think about UD as being a kind of sorting algorithm.

# Unlimited detail challenge: the most easy formulation

Thanks to Dave H. for noticing the new Euclideon site!

Now, I propose you to think about  the most easy formulation of unlimited detail.

You live in a 2D world, you have a 1D screen which has 4 pixels. You look at the world, through the screen, by using a 90deg frustrum. The 2D world is finite, with diameter N, measured in the unit lengths of the pixels (so the screen has length 4 and your eye is at distance 2 from the screen). The world contains atoms which are located on integer coordinates in the plan. There are no two atoms in the same place. Each atom has attached to it at most P bits, representing its colour. Your position is given by a pair of integer coordinates and the screen points towards  N, S, E, W only.

Challenge: give a greedy algorithm which, given your position and the screen direction,  it chooses 4 atoms from the world which are visible through the screen, in at most O(log N) steps.

Hints:

• think about what “visible” means in this setting
• use creatively numbers written in base 2, as words.

_______________

The Teaser 2D UD might help.

I’m not giving this challenge because I am a secretive …. but because I enjoy collaborations.

# Teaser: 2D UD

Here are two images which may (or may not) give an idea about another fast algorithm for real time rendering of 3D point cloud scenes (but attention, the images are drawn for the baby model of 2D point cloud scenes).  The secret lies in the database.

I have a busy schedule the next weeks and I have to get it out of my system. Therefore,  if anybody gets it then please send me a comment here. Has this been done before, does it work?

The images now: the first has no name

The second image is a photo of the Stoa Poikile, taken from here:

Hint: this is a solution for the ray shooting problem (read it) which eliminates trigonometry, shooting rays, computing intersections, and it uses only addition operation (once the database is well done), moreover, the database organized as in the pictures cannot be bigger than the original one (thus it is also a compression of the original database).

_______________

See the solution given  by JX of an unlimited detail algorithm here and here.

# Diorama, Myriorama, Unlimited detail-orama

It is too funny! Is the computer version of a diorama. Is an unlimited-detail-orama.

Before giving the zest of the explanation of JX, let’s thinks: do you ever saw a totally artificial construction which, when you look at it, it tricks your mind to believe you look at an actual, vast piece of landscape, full of infinite detail? Yes, right? This is a serious thing, actually, it poses a lot of questions about how much can be  compressed the 3D visual experience of a mind boggling  huge database of 3D points.

Indeed, JX explains that his UD type algorithm has two parts:

• indexing: start with a database of 3D points, like a laser scan. Then, produce another database of cubemaps centered in a net of equally spaced “centerpoints” which cover the 3D scene. The cubemaps are done at screen resolution, obtained as a projection of the scene on a reasonably small cube centered at the centerpoint. You may keep these cubemaps in various ways, one of these is by linking the centerpoint with the visible 3D points. Compress (several techniques suggested).   For this part of the algorithm there is no time constraint, it is done before the real-time rendering part.
• real-time rendering: input where the camera is, get only the points seen from closest  centerpoint, get the cubemap, improve it by using previous cubemaps and/or neighbouring cubemaps. Take care about filling holes which appear when you change the point of view.

Now, let me show you this has been done before, in the meatspace.  And even more, like animation! Go and read this, is too funny:

• The Daguerre Dioramas. Here’s (actually an improved version of) your cubemap JX: (image taken from the linked wiki page)

• But maybe you don’t work in the geospatial industry and you don’t have render farms and huge data available. Then you may use a Myriorama, with palm trees, gravel, statues, themselves rendered as dioramas. (image taken from the linked wiki page)

• Would you like to do animation? Here is it, look at the nice choo-choo train (polygon-rendered, at a a scale)

(image taken from this wiki page)

Please, JX, correct me if I am wrong.

# Discussion about how an UD algorithm might work

I offer this post for discussions around UD type algorithms. I shall update this post, each time indicating the original comment with the suggested updates.

[The rule concerning comments on this blog is that the first time you comment, I have to aprove it. I keep the privilege of not accepting or deleting comments which are not constructive]

For other posts here on the subject of UD see the dedicated tag unlimited detail.

I propose you to start from this comment by JX, then we may work on it to make it clear (even for a mathematician). Thank you JX for this comment!

I arranged a bit the comment, [what is written between brackets is my comment]. I numbered each paragraph, for easiness.

Now I worked and thought enough to reveal all the details, lol. [see this comment by JX]
I may dissapoint you: there’s no much mathematics in what I did. JUST SOME VERY ROUGH BRUTE-FORCE TRICKS.

1) In short: I render cubemaps but not of pixels – it is cubemaps of 3d points visible from some center.

2) When camera is in that cubemap’s center – all points projected and no holes visible. When camera moves, the world realistically changes in perspective but holes count increases. I combine few snapshots at time to decrease holes count, I also use simple hole filling algorithm. My hole filling algorithm sometimes gives same artifacts as in non-cropped UD videos (bottom and right sides) .

[source JX #2]   ( link to the artifacts image )this artifacts can be received after appliying hole-filling algorithm from left to right and then from top to the bottom, this why they appear only on right and bottom sides. Another case is viewport clipping of groups of points arranged into grid: link from my old experiment with such groups.

This confirms that UD has holes too and his claim “exactly one point for each pixel” isn’t true.
3) I used words “special”, “way”, “algorithm” etc just to fog the truth a bit. And there is some problems (with disk space) which doesn’t really bother UD as I understand. [that’s why they moved to geospatial industry] So probably my idea is very far from UD’s secret. Yes, it allows to render huge point clouds but it is stupid and I’m sure now it was done before. Maybe there is possibility to take some ideas from my engine and improve them, so here is the explanation:
4) Yes, I too started this project with this idea: “indexing is the key”. You say to the database: “camera position is XYZ, give me the points”. And there’s files in database with separated points, database just picks up few files and gives them to you. It just can’t be slow. It only may be very heavy-weight (impossible to store such many “panoramas”) .

5) I found that instead of keeping _screen pixels_ (like for panoramas) for each millimeter of camera position it is possible to keep actual _point coordinates_ (like single laser scanner frame) and project them again and again while camera moves and fill holes with other points and camera step between those files may be far bigger than millimeters (like for stereo-pairs to see volumetric image you only need two distant “snapshots”).

6) By “points linked with each other” I meant bunch of points linked to the some central points. (by points I mean _visible_ points from central point).

7) What is central point? Consider this as laser scanner frame. Scanner is static and catches points around itself. Point density near scanner is high and vice versa.

8) So again: my engine just switches gradually between virtual “scanner” snapshots of points relative to some center. During real-time presentation, for each frame a few snapshots are  projected, more points projected from the nearest, less from far snapshots.

9) Total point count isn’t very big, so real-time isn’t impossible. Some holes appear, simple algorithm fills them using only color and z-buffer data.
10) I receive frames(or snapshots) by projecting all the points using perspective matrix, I use fov 90, 256×256 or 512×512 point buffer (like z-buffer but it stores relative (to the scanner) point position XYZ).

11) I do this six times to receive cubemap. Maximum points in the frame is 512x512x6. I can easily do color interpolation for the overlapped points. I don’t pick color of the point from one place. This makes data interleaved and repeated.

12) Next functions allow me to compress point coordinates in snapshots to the 16bit values. Why it works – because we don’t need big precision for distant points, they often don’t change screen position while being moved by small steps.

int32_t expand(int16_t x, float y)
{
int8_t sign = 1;
if (x<0) { sign = -1; x = -x; }
return (x+x*(x*y))*sign;
}

int16_t shrink(int32_t z, float y)
{
int8_t sign = 1;
if (z<0) { sign = -1; z = -z; }
return ((sqrtf(4*y*z+1)-1)/(2*y))*sign;
}

13) I also compress colors to 16bit. I also compress normals to one 24bit value. I also add shader number (8bit) to the point. So one point in snapshot consists of:  16bit*3 position + 24bit normal + 16bit color + 8bit shader.

14) There must be some ways to compress it more (store colors in texture (lossy jpeg), make some points to share shader and normals). Uncompressed snapshot full of points (this may be indoor snapshot) 512x512x6 = 18Mb , 256x256x6 = 4,5Mb

Of course, after lzma compression (engine reads directly from ulzma output, which is fast) it can be up to 10 times smaller, but sometimes only 2-3 times. AND THIS IS A PROBLEM. I’m afraid, UD has smarter way to index it’s data.

For 320×240 screen resolution 512×512 is enough, 256×256 too, but there will be more holes and quality will suffer.

To summarize engine’s workflow:

15) Snapshot building stage. Render all scene points (any speed-up may be used here: octrees or, what I currently use: dynamic point skipping according to last point distance to the camera) to snapshots and compress them. Step between snapshots increases data weight AND rendering time AND quality. There’s no much sense to make step like 1 point. Or even 100 points. After this, scene is no longer needed or I should say scene won’t be used for realtime rendering.

16) Rendering stage. Load nearest snapshots to the camera and project points from them (more points for closer snapshots, less for distant. 1 main snapshot + ~6-8 additional used at time. (I am still not sure about this scheme and changing it often). Backfa..point culling applied. Shaders applied. Fill holes. Constantly update snapshots array according to the camera position.

17) If I restrict camera positions, it is possible to “compress” huge point cloud level into relatively small database. But in other cases my database will be many times greater than original point cloud scene. [ See comments   JX#2  , JX#3 , chorasimilarity#4 , chorasimilarity#5 . Here is an eye-candy image of an experiment by JX, see JX#2:]

Next development steps may be:

18) dynamic camera step during snapshot building (It may be better to do more steps when more points closer to camera (simple to count during projection) and less steps when camera in air above the island, for example),

19) better snapshot compression (jpeg, maybe delta-coding for points), octree involvement during snapshot building.

20) But as I realized disk memory problems, my interest is falling.

Any questions?

# UD question

I try to formulate the question about how Unlimited Detail works like this:

Let D be a database of 3D points, containing information about  M points. Let also S be the image on the screen, say with N pixels. Problem:

• reorganize the database D to obtain another database D’ with at most O(M) bits, such that
• starting from D’ and a finite (say 100 bytes) word there exists an algorithm which finds the image on the screen in O(N log(M)) time.

Is this reasonable?

For example, take N=1. The finite word means the position and orientation of the screen in the 3D world of the database. If the M points would admit a representation as a number (euclidean invariant hash function?) of order M^a (i.e. polynomial in the number of points), then it would be reasonable to expect  D’ to have dimension of order O(log(M)), so in this case simply by traversing D’ we get the time O(log(M)) = O(N log(M)). Even if we cannot make D’ to be O(log(M)) large, maybe the algorithm still takes O(log(M)) steps simply because M is approximately the volume, so the diameter in 3D space is roughly between M^(1/3) and M,  or due to scaling of the perspective the algorithm may still hop through D’ in geometric, not arithmetic steps.

The second remark is that there is no restriction for the time which is necessary for transforming D into D’.

# Unlimited detail and 3D portal engines, or else real-time path tracing

Here are two new small pieces which might, or not, add to the understanding of how the Unlimited Detail – Euclideon algorithm might work. (Last post on this subject is Unlimited detail, software point cloud renderers, you may want to read it.)

3D-portal engines: From this 1999 page “Building a 3D portal engine“, several quotes (boldfaced by me):

Basically, a portal based engine is a way to overcome the problem of the incredible big datasets that usually make up a world. A good 3D engine should run at a decent speed, no matter what the size of the full world is; speed should be relative to the amount of detail that is actually visible. It would of course be even better if the speed would only depend on the number of pixels you want to draw, but since apparently no one has found an algorithm that does that, we’ll go for the next best thing.

A basic portal engine relies on a data set that represents the world. The ‘world’ is subdivided in areas, that I call ‘sectors’. Sectors are connected through ‘portals’, hence the name ‘Portal Engine’. The rendering process starts in the sector that the camera is in. It draws the polygons in the current sector, and when a portal is encountered, the adjacent sector is entered, and the polygons in that sector are processed. This would of course still draw every polygon in the world, assuming that all sectors are somehow connected. But, not every portal is visible. And if a portal is not visible, the sector that it links to doesn’t have to be drawn. That’s logical: A room is only visible if there’s a line of sight from the camera to that room, that is not obscured by a wall.

So now we have what we want: If a portal is invisible, tracing stops right there. If there’s a huge part of the world behind that portal, that part is never processed. The number of polygons that are actually processed is thus almost exactly equal to the number of visible polygons, plus the inserted portal polygons.

By now it should also be clear where portals should be inserted in a world: Good spots for portals are doors, corridors, windows and so on. That also makes clear why portal engines suck at outdoor scenes: It’s virtually impossible to pick good spots for portals there, and each sector can ‘see’ virtually every other sector in the world. Portal rendering can be perfectly combined with outdoor engines though: If you render your landscape with another type of engine, you could place portals in entrances of caves, buildings and so on. When the ‘normal’ renderer encounters a portal, you could simply switch to portal rendering for everything behind that portal. That way, a portal engine can even be nice for a ‘space-sim’…

So let’s dream and ask if there is any way to construct the database for the 3D scene such that the rendering process becomes an algorithm for finding the right portals, one for each pixel maybe. To think about.  The database is not a tree, but from the input given by the position of the viewer, the virtually available portals (which could be just pointers attached to faces of octrees, say, which point to the faces of smaller cubes which are visible from the bigger face, seen as a portal) organize themselves into a tree. Therefore the matter of finding what to put on a screen pixel could be solved by a search algorithm.

As a small bonus, here is the link to a patent of Euclideon Pty. Ltd. : An alternate method for the child rejection process in regards to octree rendering – AU2012903094.

Or else real-time path tracing. Related to Brigade 2, read here, and  a video:

# Unlimited detail, software point cloud renderers

This is a continuation of the discussion from the posts dedicated to and  ,  only this time I want to comment briefly on the euclideon algorithm side.

In one comment by JX there is a link to this image:

Let me copy the relevant bits:

“There is no relation between scene size or complexity and framespeed. Only window resolution affects performance. There is no profit from repetitive models, bigger scenes just use more disk space, no matter how unique models it has. Search algorithm is used, but it is NOT raytracing, there’s no rays.”

“I also don’t use octree or any tree for now. Neither DM (don’t even understood it fully).”

Well, that’s a big difference (if true) between JX (and Unlimited Detail) on one side and other software point cloud renderers. I shall present two examples in the next videos. The authors use octrees and their demonstrations are much more impressive than JX’s picture.

UPDATE: Check out the comment by JX, answering some implicit questions.

# Digital materialization, Euclideon and fractal image compression (III)

Bruce Dell definitely oriented his Euclideon-Unlimited Detail technique towards the geospatial industry, see for example the conference summary of the International Lidar mapping forum, Denver 2013, where he will speak about “The impact of unlimited processing power on the geospatial industry”.

He participated at the 2012 Brisbane international Geospatial Forum, July 8-11, here is the presentation program with abstracts.   His talk abstract, named the same, gives a video link which is very interesting.

The points I understood and want to stress are the following:

– he speaks about the “two bridges” between the virtual world and the real world, this is really very close to the Digital materialization philosophy.  So, I  guessed right such a link (here and here), from the exterior of both interested parts. My question, to the DM groups is: are you going to do something about this, for example collaborations with Euclideon? And even more: has the geospatial industry  things to learn from DM (I think they do)?

– there is definitely an Euclideon format which “may take a while” to get from the format of the laser scans used by the geospatial industry. In the video Dell puts an image with big racks of computers needed to do the conversion format. My question is: is he using  some part of the fractal image compression idea (maybe, for example, Dell is not using freps, but it might use in his data structure ideas from fractal image compression). Again, for the DM community, I have a question: giving that you use huge files, maybe you can use some Euclideon tricks to ease the use of them? and blend them with freps?

– really the Euclideon algorithm (which has as the fundamental part the data structure of the Euclideon format) works well.  By looking at the images from the presentation, I am asking myself if “Euclideon” name comes from some clever embedding of the Euclidean group of isometries into the data structure. I feel there must be something obvious about principal bundles … 🙂 which model an observer in the euclidean space AND the data acquired by laser scans … To think.

# Digital materialization, Euclideon and fractal image compression (II)

For the background see the previous post Digital materialization, Euclideon and fractal image compression.

As I wrote before, this may have been done, please tell me if so.

The idea is that once a 3D image is encoded by a kind of fractal image compression algorithm, then the problem of attribution of a “3D atom” of the 3D image to a “2D pixel” from the screen becomes a search problem in a tree, as maybe the Unlimited Detail – Euclideon algorithm is. The kind of encoding I am writing about may have been done by, or may be useful for the groups working in “Digital materialization”.

UPDATE:  Here is a youtube video made by AEROmetrex company, “a leader in photogrammetric solutions is launching its latest technological service aero3Dpro today: a complete 3D modelling service for Australian and overseas users of geospatial and 3D data”

In the comments, they write they are using Geoverse/Unlimited Detail/Euclideon technology and they mention that

For a 15Gb 3D model the Euclideon Unlimited Format file is about 2 Gb

Further is detailed my speculation that Euclideon may use a variant of fractal image compression in their format.

I do not want to trespass any boundaries or pretending I am doing anything new, that is why I repeat my request to tell me if anything like this was done (and who did it).

1. Let me first recall a famous theorem by Hutchinson, concerning iterated function systems.

Let $(X,d)$ be a complete metric space and let $H(X)$ be the collection of compact sets in $(X,d)$. On the space $H(X)$ we may put the Hausdorff distance between subsets of $X$, defined in the following way. For any $\varepsilon > 0$ and for any set $A \subset X$, the $\varepsilon$ neighbourhood of $A$ is the set

$A_{\varepsilon} = \left\{ y \in X \mbox{ : } d(x,y) \leq \varepsilon \right\} = \cup_{x \in A} B(x,\varepsilon)$

where $B(x, \varepsilon)$ is the closed ball centered at $x$, of radius $\varepsilon$.

The Hausdorff distance between sets $A, B \subset X$ is then

$d_{H}(A,B) = \inf \left\{ \varepsilon > 0 \mbox{ : } A \subset B_{\varepsilon} , B \subset A_{\varepsilon} \right\}$

The important fact happening here is that $(H(X), d_{H})$ is a complete metric space. Moreover, if $X$ is compact, then $H(X)$ is compact too.

An iterated function system (IFS)  on the compact $(X,d)$ is a finite collection of transformations of $X$, say $a_{1}, ... , a_{N}$, such that  every $a_{i}$ is a contraction: there is $r_{i} \in (0,1)$ such that

$d(a_{i}(x), a_{i}(y)) \leq r_{i} d(x,y)$ for any $x,y \in X$.

The Hutchinson operator associated to the IFS is the transformation

$A \in H(X)$    goes to  $T(A) = \cup_{i = 1, ..., N} a_{i}(A)$.

Hutchinson theorem says that $T$ is a contraction, therefore it has a unique fixed point, i.e. a compact set $A \subset X$ such that $T(A) = A$, which is the same as

$A = \cup_{i = 1, ..., N} a_{i}(A)$.

2. Michael Barnsley had the idea of using this result for doing fractal image compression.  In few words, fractal image compression is any algorithm which solves the inverse problem: given $A \in H(X)$, find an IFS which has $A$ as a fixed point. In this way the set $A$ (which represents the image, for example as the graph of the function which associates to any pixel a RGB vector of colors) is “encoded”   by the functions from the IFS. More specifically, we may take $X$ to be (a compact subset of) $\mathbb{R}^{n}$ and look for an IFS of affine contractions. Then the set $A$ is encoded in (or compressed to) the set of coefficients of the affine transformations of the IFS.

3. Without going to the last detail, let us see this construction from the point of view of “Digital materialization”. The idea which is behind is to characterise a subset of $X$ by a function $\phi: X \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ such that $x \in A$ if and only if $\phi(x) \leq 0$.  If $A$ is described by $\phi$ and $B$ is described by $\psi$, then

$A \cup B$ is described by $\min \left\{ \phi, \psi \right\}$  and

$A \cap B$ is described by $\max \left\{ \phi , \psi \right\}$ and

– for any bijective transformation $a$  of $X$, the set $a(A)$ is described by $\phi \circ a^{-1}$.

Thus, starting from a library of functions $\phi, \psi, ...$ and from a library of bijective transformations of the space (like translations. rotations, etc, where this makes sense), we may describe a huge  collection of sets by a tree, which has nodes decorated with $\min$, $\max$  and edges decorated with compositions $\phi \circ a$, with $\phi$ from the library of “textures” [my choice of name maybe not good, correct me please] $\phi, \psi, ...$  and $a$ from the library of “legal” bijective transformations.

In fact, we may refine a bit this description by giving: [note added later: is this some version of  “Image codingbased on a fractal theory of iterated contractive image transformation”,  AE Jaquin – IEEE Trans. on image Processing, 1992 ?]

– a master shape $\phi$, for example, taken from the equation of a ball of radius $1$, if we suppose that $X$ is an euclidean space. Let $M$ be the set described by $\phi$.

– a collection of “locators” [I’m totally inventing names here], that is a finite collection of (affine, say) contractions of $X$ such that they send $M$ to a subset of $M$

– a potentially infinite collection of “textures”, one for every IFS constructed from a finite set of locators and the masted shape $\phi$. Therefore, to any finite collection of locators $a_{1}, ... , a_{p}$ we associate the “texture”

$\psi = \min$   $\phi \circ a_{1}^{-1} , ... , \phi \circ a_{p}^{-1}$.

– a finite collection of “legitimate translations”, which are just affine (say) transformations with the property that they move $M$ to  sets which do not intersect with $M$, and such that they generate a group which is roughly equivalent with the space $X$ (simply put, if $X$ is $\mathbb{R}^{n}$ then the group generated by legitimate translations contains a $\mathbb{Z}^{n}$).

Given a IFS constructed from compositions of “locators” and “legitimate translations”, say $a_{1}, ... , a_{M}$, there is a Hutchinson-like operator which associates to any “shape” $\phi$ (a function obtained from  the application of a finite number of “min” and “max” to a finite collection of functions obtained from the master shape composed with locators and legitimate translations) the new shape

$T(\phi) = \min$  $\phi \circ a_{1}^{-1} , ... , \phi \circ a_{M}^{-1}$.

Notice that, in terms of the tree which describes the shapes, the tree which describes $T(\phi)$ is easily (recursively) obtained from the tree which describes $\phi$.

Now, a compression algorithm associated to this data is any algorithm which solves the following problem: given a (compact) set$A \subset X$ and a $\varepsilon > 0$, find an IFS constructed from “locators” and “legitimate translations” which has the fixed point inside $A_{\varepsilon}$.

By using locators and legitimate translations, one may define “textures” and “shapes” at a scale.

The big problem is to find efficient algorithms, but once such an algorithm is used to encode a shape (which might be time intensive) the decoding is easy!

# Digital Materialization, Euclideon and Fractal Image Compression

Are these:

related? Can be this rather simple (from a pure math viewpoint) research program doable and moreover DONE by anybody?

Let me explain. My wonder came after searching with google for

– “Digital materialization” AND “euclideon”   – no answers

– “Digital materialization” AND “Fractal image compression” – no answers

– “Fractal image compression” AND “euclideon” – no answers

1. Cite from the Digital Materialization Group homepage:

Digital Materialization (DM) can loosely be defined as two-way direct communication or conversion between matter and information that enable people to exactly describe, monitor, manipulate and create any arbitrary real object. DM is a general paradigm alongside a specified framework that is suitable for computer processing and includes: holistic, coherent, volumetric modeling systems; symbolic languages that are able to handle infinite degrees of freedom and detail in a compact format; and the direct interaction and/or fabrication of any object at any spatial resolution without the need for “lossy” or intermediate formats.

DM systems possess the following attributes:

• realistic – correct spatial mapping of matter to information
• exact – exact language and/or methods for input from and output to matter
• infinite – ability to operate at any scale and define infinite detail
• symbolic – accessible to individuals for design, creation and modification

As far as I understand, this works based on Function Representation (FREP), see HyperFun.org . The idea is to define an object in $\mathbb{R}^{3}$ say, by a function $F: \mathbb{R}^{3} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$, which describes the object as the set of points $x$ where $F(x) \leq 0$. Start with a small library of functions (for example polynomials) and then construct other functions by using min, max, and so on. Therefore an object is described by a tree, with leaves decorated by functions and nodes decorated by min, max, … , operations.  This is a very simplistic, but fundamentally precise description. The main point is that there is no object (defined for example by a mesh in space), but instead we may check if a point $x$  in space belongs or not to the object by evaluating the sign of $F(x)$. Moreover, translations, rotations, dilations (or any other easy to implement change of parametrization of the space) are implemented by composition with the function $F$ which describes the object.

In particular, we may easily pass to polar coordinates based on the point of view and stay in this  coordinate system for visualization.

2. Fractal image compression is based on the fact that any compact set (like an image, described as a compact set in the 5D space = 2D (spatial) times 3D (RGB levels)) can be described as a fixed point of an iterated function system.

This brings me to

PROBLEM 1: Is there any version of the Hutchinson theorem about fixed points of IFS, with the space of compact sets replaced by a space of FREP functions? Correspondingly, is there a “FREP  compression algorithm”?

My guess is that the answer is YES. Let’s assume it is so.

3. In the article “Digital Foundry vs. Unlimited Detail”   it is reported the following 2008 post by Bruce Dell:

Hi every one , I’m Bruce Dell (though I’m not entirely sure how I prove that on a forum)

Any way: firstly the system isn’t ray tracing at all or anything like ray tracing. Ray tracing uses up lots of nasty multiplication and divide operators and so isn’t very fast or friendly.
Unlimited Detail is a sorting algorithm that retrieves only the 3d atoms (I wont say voxels any more it seems that word doesn’t have the prestige in the games industry that it enjoys in medicine and the sciences) that are needed, exactly one for each pixel on the screen, it displays them using a very different procedure from individual 3d to 2d conversion, instead we use a mass 3d to 2d conversion that shares the common elements of the 2d positions of all the dots combined. And so we get lots of geometry and lots of speed, speed isn’t fantastic yet compared to hardware, but its very good for a software application that’s not written for dual core. We get about 24-30 fps 1024*768 for that demo of the pyramids of monsters. The media is hyping up the death of polygons but really that’s just not practical, this will probably be released as “backgrounds only” for the next few years, until we have made a lot more tools to work with.

Assuming that we take a database representing a 3D very complex object (like a piece of landscape) and we convert it, by using a FREP compression algorithm, into a tree as described at point 1, then it becomes easy to imagine how the Unlimited Detail algorithm might work.

Problem 2:  Given a FREP representation of a collection of 3D objects, describe an efficient sorting algorithm which uses the representation and outputs the part of the union of object visible from a given point at  infinity.

Conclusion: unless this is utter giberish, the modus operandi of an “unlimited detail” algorithm could be the following:

1)- start with a database of a collection of 3d objects and compress it into a FREP format

2)- perform a “mass 3d to 2d conversion”, by using a solution of the problem 2,  in polar coordinated from the viewpoint.

# Mass connected processing?

In this  Unlimited Detail technology description  appears the term “mass connected processing”. Looking on the net for this one finds this post,  I cite from it:

“By the looks of what they are saying, the areas and level of real time software performance they are talking about, it is likely to be the same methods that I came up with back around 1997 (when I was also in Brisbane), or not far off of it, as the problem reduces down to single 100% efficient methods. ”

Anybody knows what’s this all about?

# Leap motion, another example of computing with space

After the post on Unlimited Detail, here is another example of something which may be seen as (facilitating the) computing with space: the Leap, by Leap Motion.

I see a difference and a common point, when I look at both.

Difference:   The Leap, by  is a finished, or almost, product, while Unlimited detail, by Euclideon, is still in development.

Common point: In both cases it is stressed that the respective products are outcomes of mathematical breakthroughs!

# Unlimited detail: news

There are news regarding the “Unlimited detail” technology developed by Euclideon.

To be clear, I don’t think it’s a scam. It may be related to what I am describing in the paper Maps of metric spaces, which has the abstract:

This is a pedagogical introduction covering maps of metric spaces, Gromov-Hausdorff distance and its “physical” meaning, and dilation structures as a convenient simplification of an exhaustive database of maps of a metric space into another. See arXiv:1103.6007 for the context.

This is pure speculation, but it looks to me that all has to do with manipulations of maps in the screen pixels space, along the lines of using scale stable and viewpoint stable zoom sequences (definitions 4.1-4.4) and (the groupoid of) transformations between these.

But how exactly? I would really much like to know!

Some time ago, after seeing the demos (check the link to the wiki page of unlimited detail), I tried to learn more about the mathematical details, but without success (which is understandable).

Now Bruce Dell released new demos and an interview!

Don’t be fooled by the fractal looking of the territory! Probably it has more to do with the fact that in order to use Unlimited Detail, one first needs to have a territory to render, so, in my opinion, the guys generated it by using some fractal tricks.

UPDATE 06.09.2012: After a bit more than a year, now Euclideon morphed into Euclideon:Geoverse. Looks less and less as a scam, what do you think, Markus Persson?

Still looking forward to learn how exactly Unlimited detail works though.